The management of water in the country has been regulated by various parliamentary, legislative and judicial interventions. Articles 48(A) and 51A (g) of the Constitution of India make the State and every Citizen responsible for the conservation of environment. The Policy Statement for the Abatement of Pollution,1992, the National Conservation Strategy and the Policy Statement on Environment and Development,1992 and the National Environment Policy of 2006 framed by the Government of India, all point towards an integration of environmental and economic concerns in development planning recognizing fully the importance and imperativeness of a Clean Environment -water included. The sustainable use of land and water resources, the preservation of biodiversity and the prevention and control of pollution are important elements of these policies. Reuse and recycling is the thrust strategy.

The National Water Policy, 2002 recognizes the need for making a judicious allocation of the available water resources giving top most priority to supply of safe drinking water. The policy also contains provisions for developing, conserving, sustainably utilizing and managing water resources based on National perspectives. It aims to address concerns due to water logging, soil salinity and over exploitation of ground water on the basis of common policies and strategies. The policy also includes improvements in existing strategies and the development of new technologies to eliminate the pollution of surface and ground water resources.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) act, 1974 was enacted by Parliament with the objective of maintaining the whole someness of water and creating a regime for the prevention and control of pollution of this valuable resource. It prescribes a system whereby new and existing discharges are regulated through a mechanism of “Consents”, which also ensures that the quality of waste waters being discharged into streams, rivers, wells or on land meet the prescribed standards. The standards prescribed by the Central Government cannot be relaxed by the State Governments. They can be made more stringent. It is a strong act which also provides that the State Pollution Control Boards can issue directions to ensure provisions and these directions include the closure of industry, operations or process or suspension of water supply and suspension of power supply. This tool is being increasingly used by the Pollution Control Boards to enforce regulatory provisions.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 was enacted to augment the resources of the State Pollution Control Boards. The provisions of the Act also make it a strong tool for water conservation and maintenance of water quality. Higher rates of cess for water used in processes generating biodegradable and not easily biodegradable wastes and for water uses beyond the specified quantities where prescribed, have been extremely successful in the management of water. The provisions of a rebate on cess dues to compliant users are also an incentive for better Environmental Management. Some very significant reductions have been achieved in the consumption of water per unit of production and have resulted in financial gains to the user also.

Recognizing the impact of industrial waste water on water quality and the need for priorities, the Government of India carried out special drives for control of pollution from 17 categories of highly polluting industries and industries discharging into lakes and rivers classified as Grossly Pollution. The Government of India has also formulated Charters on Corporate Responsibility on Environmental Protection for the 17 category of highly polluting industries. This Charter prepared after due consultations with the industry sectors involved, proposed time bound action plans for ensuring completeness in pollution control systems and bank guarantees to ensure a commitment to the action plans.

The National Ganga Basin Conservation Authority created by the Government of India is an important step in the comprehensive management of water of the river Ganga which flows through Uttaranchal, U.P., Bihar and West Bengal on its way to the sea.

Water quality degradation may be due to the discharge of untreated domestic and industrial waste waters. As per 2006 estimates of the CPCB, 423 class I cities and 498 class II towns of the Country generated about 33000 MLD OF waste water out of which only about 7000 MLD gets some kind of treatment. Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Gujrat are the major contributors. In many cases the facilities for treatment do not work. C.P.C.B. estimates also indicate that the total waste water generated from all major industrial sources is 15,438 MLD out of which 9000 MLD are being treated. It is the small and tiny sectors industries in congested industrial areas which are a cause of major concern. Both these sources along with agricultural run off contribute to deteriorating quality of surface and ground waters and need to be addressed to.

Pollutants may percolate and leach and find their way into ground waters. Significant pollution of ground water through anthropogenic sources has been observed in areas near Lohia Nagar, Ghaziabad, Nauraiya Kheda at Kanpur, Jajmau Kanpur and other places. Chromium has been found to be the man contaminant with origins due to spent bath discharges or indiscriminate dumping of hazardous wastes.

Standards for discharge into receiving bodies have been fixed on technological consideration. However, the basic assumption is that at least 10 times dilutions is available in the receiving water. With huge withdrawals from surface and ground waters it is essential that minimum flows be maintained. This is an important challenge which makes it imperative that minimum flows be maintained or a progressive reduction or elimination of effluent discharges be achieved. The zero effluent discharges strategy prescribed for distilleries under the Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection is an important step in this direction. Increasing regulation, judicial intervention and proactive industry participation has also produced a significant reduction in waste water generation per unit production.

Ground water in many parts of the Country has become a limiting factor for domestic and industrial development. In such cases it is very important that waste water be treated as a resource. The use of distillery spent wash along with press mud in the preparation of bio compost is a good example. The use of treated effluents for irrigation and horticulture needs to be increasingly practiced. The State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority in Uttar Pradesh prescribes decentralized sewage treatment in development projects and also prescribes that treated effluents be reused in horticulture, cooling, flushing etc. In order to minimize pressures on ground water it also emphasizes the use of dual flushing systems. Project proponents have been asked to restrict water use to 86 LPCD in conformity to guidelines of the National Building Code. There is also a need to evolve a system of according clearances on ground water abstraction. The SEIAA as above is making it mandatory to get a clearance but their does appear to be an absence of a mechanism. The presence of Arsenic and fluoride in waste water in many parts of the Country is a major concern. Ground water use in such areas could be minimized and more reliance be given to surface water. Rain water harvesting and augmentation of storage capacities for rain water should be important programmes for such areas. The State Level Environmental Impact Assessment Authority has made Rain water harvesting mandatory in all development projects except where it is not possible on water table consideration.

Ground water can be conserved if treated industrial waste water is recycled and reused. Segregation of waste water streams may assist this. It has been estimated that quantity of effluents from the sugar industry can be reduced from 300 to 50 liters per tonne of cane crushed if recycling techniques are meticulously followed. Continuous fermentation distilleries generate almost half the effluents as compared to the 14-15 liters per liter of Alcohol generated in batch process distilleries. Fiber recovery units in pulp and paper plants have enabled the paper mill effluents to be completely recycled and the waste water to be reduced from 200 m3 per tonne of paper to 50 m3 per tonne of paper. In the reuse of low quality waters for agriculture or aquaculture purposes, due consideration should be given to health and other safeguards.

With water tariffs being extremely low, there is little incentive for conservation of water. There is a need to develop a pricing mechanism not only based on pumping cost of water but also on the environmental and social costs. Augmenting the storage capacities in the lower reaches to trap water during high flows is also necessary to release pressures on ground water sources. There is also a need to document and employ traditional practices for water conservation.

Out of a total of 4000 BCM precipitation reported for India about 450 BCM percolates as ground water flow. Ground water is limited and has therefore to be used judiciously and conserved to the maximum extent possible. Artificial recharging by allowing the rain water to spread over land and remain in large areas for long times allows maximum quantity of water to enter the ground. Recharge wells may also be used to admit water from the surface to fresh water aquifer. Percolation tanks used excessively in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra and Karnataka have been found to be very effective. In an average area of influence of 1.2 km2 average ground water rise was 2.5 meter and the recharge to ground water was 1.5 hectare meters. Watershed management plans for hilly areas have augmented the water availability. Check bunds delay run off and increase seepage. Afforestation also helps in water and soil conservation. About 80% of the water consumption can be reduced by using water sprinklers in scarcity areas and 50 to 70 % by employing drip irrigation methods. Managing growing patterns, selecting low irrigation crop varieties, using antitranspirants to reduce water loss by transpiration reducing evaporation from soil surface by planning water tight moisture barriers, reducing evaporating losses from water bodies by installing wind breaks, minimizing exposed surface, locating reservoirs at higher altitudes and applying monomolecular films has been variously tried and found to be effective in water conservation.

A brief reference to rivers is also important at this stage. An analysis by the Central Pollution Control board has indicated that about 6086 km (14%) river length in the Country is severely polluted with a B.O.D of more than 6 mg/l, 8691 KMS (19%) is moderately polluted with a B.O.D.of 3 to 6 mg/L and about 30242 (67%) is relatively clean with a B.O.D. of less than 3 mg/L Degradation is due to point and non point sources of pollution. Sewage effluents play a major role. The irony is that while the CPCB identified 10 polluted stretches in 1988-1989, the number increased to 37 during 1992-1993 and as of 2006 this was 86. In U.P. the Yamuna between Kosikalan to confluence with Chambal, the Hindon, the western Kali the Buri Ganga,Yamuna, Eastern Kali Nadi, Gomti beyond Lucknow and the Ganga between Kannauj to Kanpur District and Varanasi District have been identified as critical. It does need a check. The Jawahar Lal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission make a provision of improving urban services and the sewage treatment plants will certainly help to improve the quality of water. The availability of sufficient flows has been a major concern and needs immediate redress. This can be accomplished by prudent water augmentation and reuse and recycle policies.

Wetlands are a valuable resource because of their immense economic, ecological and cultural values. Recharge of ground water and flood control are two ecological services that wetlands provide. The economic value of these services is difficult to quantify. In spite of their invaluable use to mankind, wetlands are being increasingly encroached upon. Wetlands in India occupy some 58.2 million hectares with 93 wetlands meeting the criteria under the Ramsar convention. In addition to being increasingly encroached upon wetlands are also victims of increased eutrophication-and salinisation through waste water discharges. It is imperative that these wetlands are managed more efficiently in light of existing laws. Judicial intervention in U.P. has helped in conserving these wetlands. The State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority in U.P. is trying to see that development projects do not infringe on wetlands that if a wetland falls in the project site it has to be restored and maintained as a wetland.

All said and done, water is an invaluable resource getting scarcer day by day. Populating pressures and consequent development needs are affecting surface and ground waters both in terms of deteriorated water quality and available water quantity. Ground water resources are depleting, minimum flows are not available in river systems, and important river stretches are grossly polluted. This requires strategies which aim at reducing pollution at source, minimizing waste water discharges, using waste water as a resource, reusing and recycling, a more efficient resource utilization and most importantly sound population control and poverty alleviation policies because in both these issues lies the root cause of the problem.

It is being increasingly recognized that end of pipe solutions are not the ultimate strategy for waste management. Economic instruments have a major role to play. These also include cost cuttings through  recovery, reuse and recycle of waste materials as also a more prudent use of resources and a reduction in the quantity of effluents discharged. The ideal being achieving zero or near zero discharge. The use of clean process technologies to achieve these ends is of great advantage to tanners. It has been demonstrated that a Tannery with a production capacity of 2000 kg. of hides /skin per day might potentially save Rs. 1.4 million per month by adopting clean process technologies. A number of clean technology options for tanners have emerged.

Reduction in raw material consumption:
Salt consumption could be reduced by lowering the time between slaughtering and further treatment and by cooling the hides preferably below 4 degrees Celsius for good preservation up to 3 weeks. Fleshing and trimming could be practiced in the slaughter house. Dry salting can also minimize the use of salt for preservation of hides. Low environmental impact antiseptics have also been tried as a substitute for salt as a preservative. Preservatives like TCMTB, Isothiazolone products, potassium dimethyl dithiocarbamate, Sodium Chlorite, benzalkonium chloride, sodium fluoride and boric acid have also been used. Some of these have also been found to be useful for soaking, pickling and wet blue preservation.

In the beam house, a significant reduction in water consumption can be achieved by the use of new drums and processors to facilitate efficient draining and washing and the recycle of low floats.
As a part of clean process initiatives in the soaking process, the use of low polluting antiseptics has been tried. Fleshing of green hides after soaking is a cleaner alternative over fleshing after liming.
Upto 40% of sodium sulphide and 50% of lime can be saved by the direct recycling of the liming float. In order to maintain the quality of leather, unhairing and opening up processes should be done in separate stages. When tanning and pickling floats are separated they result in a saving of about 80% of salt and 20-25% of either formic or sulphuric acid. Salt concentrations in pickling floats can also be reduced by using non swelling agents.
Splitting on the lime is a cleaner technology than chromium tanned splitting as it reduces the amount of chromium used and gives off waste that can be easily used for the production of Gelatine.

Reduction of Pollutants at source:
Mechanical desalting by hand shaking, mechanical brushes or a drum type shaker can remove up to 10 % of salt added to the hides for processing. This can be reused for pickling after dissolution and removal of solids. Desalting of raw hides has resulted in a reduction of up to 15% salt loads at the salt pans in some tanneries at Tamil Nadu. A reduction of up to 15% of T.D.S. has also been observed due to use of enzyme based unhairing processes and better quality lime in tanneries. Segregating and reusing pickle and chrome tanning liquors also has the capacity to reduce the T.D.S by 10% in composite tannery waste waters. Clean processes have resulted in reduction of emission loads in composite waste waters from about 600 to 400 Kg. /ton of raw material.
Solvent recovery, extraction of brines and commercial reuse of recovered grease has been advocated as a clean process technology for degreasing.

Reduction of B.O.D. and C.O.D at source:
Mechanical desalting, use of enzyme assisted sulfide-reduced dehairing and cleaner chrome tanning have resulted in at least 30-40% reduction in the B.O.D. and C.O.D. loads per tonne of leather produced. Recovery of hair either when it is separated during the liming or at the end of the hair saving process and reutilization as a nitrogen source may in itself  bring down the C.O.D. loads by about 15-20% in the mixed effluents and a reduction of 25-30% in total nitrogen.

Reduction of Sulphide Loads:
A 50-60% reduction in the Sodium Sulphide loads required for dehairing has been observed by using enzyme based technologies. This has also demonstrated a net gain of 2% increase in the area of leather and could compensate for the increased cost of using enzymes. The reduction in sulphides has also demonstrated a potential ability to save atleast 8-10% of the cost of end of pipe treatment.

Reduction of Nitrogen Salts:
The use of ammonium salts in deliming is responsible for the generation of about 40% ammoniacal nitrogen.Various Nitrogen free deliming technologies are now available. The use of Carbon Dioxide is one such. The insertion of Hydrogen Peroxide before Carbon Dioxide reduces the creation of Hydrogen Sulphide.

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One or the economic and effective anaerobic treatment method is the UASB (Upflow Anerobic Sludge Blanket) process. In a UASB Reactor wastewater is fed from the bottom. As it flows upward through the reactor, organic matter in the waste is degraded anaerobically by micro organisms resident in the sludge blanket. Besides converting organics to cell mass, biogas rich in methane is produced as a by product. A Gas Liquid Solid separator(GLSS) provided near the top of the reactor, enables sludge to settle into the blanket, biogas to escape into the dome at the top of the reactor, and treated supernatant to flow out of the reactor. High sludge concentration in sludge blanket and low concentration of suspended solids in the reactor over flow are characteristic features of a good UASBR.

The basic advantages of a UASBR over aerobic treatment units are :

    * UASBR in a compact unit, ideal for economic space utilization.
    * UASB treatment process requires no external input of energy. Even the required mixing is achieve by upflowing waste water and rising gas bubbles.
    * Nutrient requirement (i.e. N&P) is muc less than (about half that needed ) for aerobic treatment.
    * Residuals (i.e.sludge) generated by UASB treatmet are much less in amount and well digested, requiring reduced sludge hanldling and causing much less odour problems.

The UASBR comprises no mechanical or moving part involving wear and tear. Thus it is virtually maintenance free and involves few operational problems. When properly designed and made, a UASBR provides trouble-free service for many years.

    * Biogas, rich in methane, is generated as a valuable by product. Methane produced is about 0.15 to 0.35 Nm3/kg COD destroyed.
    * Owing to the compactness of UASBR , absence of mechanical/moving components, energy efficiency of the process, and reduced post- treatment and sludge handling requirements, both the capital cost and running cost of a UASBR based treatment plant are significantly less than for a fully aerobic teratment plant.
    * Once a UASBR has been put in operation, acclimatised bacteria can survive without food in the reactor for long durations. This enables easy strartup of the UASBR after prolonged periods of being out of operation.
    * UASBR is a noiseless, closed and covered unit that is aesthetically very satisfying.

UASBR APPLICATIONS:
UASB Technology has found applications worldwide, in treating various types of wastewater. Among industries, some popular applications are in the food processing and producing industries, dairies and milk-processing units, sugar mills, pulp and paper, breweries, distilleries, potato, vegetable and fruit processing plants, soft drink plants, tanneries and slaughterhouses. For complex industrial wastes or adverse environmental conditions, however, a pilot study or treatability assessment is desirable. For municipal waste waters (Sewage) BOD removal of 60% to 80% is normal under favourable conditions (influent BOD >=140 mg/l. BOD/COD => 0.4, temperature 15-42 ºC, etc.) Suspended solids may be also reduced in the process, but some post-treatment (aerated lagoon or stablization/polishing pond) is generally needed for BOD removal to the desired degree.

To control the environmental pollution, the Govt. has laid an organisational, regulatory and fiscal framework under the MOEF & Central/State PC Boards with extensive environmental legislation during the past two decades. However, it is being increasingly realised that a purely regulatory approach to tackle environmental pollution has serious limitations and this needs to be supplemented by a greater awareness and commitment on the part of the industry to manufacture the products in an environmentally acceptable and sound manner under the overall objective of sustainable development.

With a greater public awareness globally, the public and the stake holders are now demanding that the products must not only be of high quality and competitively priced, but also they should be produced without adversely affecting the environment. It is now clear that only the environmentally responsible companies shall be able to retain and enhance their share of the growing international market. Accordingly, a discernible trend is slowly emerging in the corporate world of projecting ones’ image as that of environmentally sound enterprise. This approach essentially means that the control of pollution instead of being merely reactive to the regulatory controls, has to be replaced by a proactive approach to demonstrate environmental performance beyond compliance.

The above objective can only be achieved by adopting a credible Environmental Management System which provides a structured process for periodically reviewing and evaluating the environmental performance that it sets itself, as also for achieving continual improvement. The ISO 14001 International Standard prescribes such an Environmental Management System.

The ISO 14001 Environmental Management System:

The international ISO 14001 EM Standard, with an overall aim to support environmental protection and prevention of pollution in balance with the socio-economic needs, is :

   1. Applicable to all types and sizes of organisations an accommodates diverse geographical, cultural and social conditions.
   2. Intends to provide elements of effective environment management system, which can be integrated with other management requirements, to assist in achieving environmental and economic goals.
   3. Enables an organisation to establish and assess the effectiveness of,
      Procedures to set an environmental policy and objectives
      Achieve conformance with them, and
      Demonstrate such conformance to others.
   4. Addresses the needs of a broad range of interested parties and the evolving needs of society for environmental protection.

Benefits of the ISO 14001 EM System:
To the Organisation:

    * Improved Operational Efficiency
    * Better Uilisation of materials & resources
    * Reduced costs and wastage
    * Increased access to world markets
    * Improved staff morale and work environment
    * Assurance to interested parties
    * Enhanced Corporate Image
    * Encourages partnership between industry and regulators

To the Nation:

    * Better Utilisation of National Resources
    * Reduced pressure on Environment
    * Reduced cost of Enforcement
    * Potential Annual Savings
    * Globally Competitive Industry
    * Environmentally Conscious Nation

Road Map to ISO 14001 Certification :

    * Study ISO 14000 Standard
    * Preferably appoint an outside Consultant/Guide
    * Appoint Management Representative
    * Formulate & disseminate Environmental Policy
    * Develop & implement ISO 14001 Environmental Management System
    * Train Internal Environmental Auditor or appoint outside Env. Auditor
    * Appoint Certifying Agency, viz. DNV, BVQI, TUV, BIS etc.
    * Carry out at least 2 Internal Environmental Audits
    * Pre Assessment Audit by Certifying Agency
    * Final Certification Audit by the Certifying Agency
    * Post implementation benefit Analysis after 3 months of Certification

Current Scene of ISO 14001 Certification in the Country :

    * Over 35 Industrial Units already Certified to ISO 14001
    * Another 40 units currently implementing ISO 14001

Significant productivity improvements and financial savings reported by the Companies on ISO 14001 implementation, like,

   1. Indian Aluminium Company (INDAL) reported,
          * 80 % reduction in Water Consumption
          * Recovery of Copper, Tin & Lead from Spent Acid, etchants & liquid & solid wastes
          * Elimination of the use of toxic chemicals like, formaldehyde, lead & fluorides by substituting with alternate technologies
          * Use of poor grade coal by CFBC Boiler
          * 50 % less requirement for land for Ash storage
   2. ITC Limited (ILTD Division) reported,
          * Minimised Water Consumption
          * Minimised Coal Consumption in Boilers
          * Reduced Energy Consumption in Line-II
          * Streamlining of Waste disposal procedures
          * Reduced Ambient Air Temperature near DG Sets
          * Reduced Noise emissions

It was somewhere during the evolution of these tools that public interest litigation was also recognised as a cooperative effort in which the petitioner, the state or the public authority and the court endeavoured to secure legal rights, benefits and priveleges conferred upon the weaker sections of society and to reach social justice to them. It was also emphasized that the state or public authority which is arrayed as a respondent in public interest litigation should in fact welcome it as it would give an opportunity to right a wrong or to redress an injustice done to the poor and weaker section of the community whose welfare is and must be the prime concern of the State or the Public authority. It was this period that witnessed the emergence of the courts as courts for the poor and struggling masses of the country and of public interest litigation as a tool to solve problems of the poor and the vulnerable sections of society.(S.P.Gupta and others vs. President of India and others, AIR 1982, S.C.149; Peoples Union for Democratic Rights and others vs Union of India and others, AIR 1982, S.C. 1973)

Of special importance to enviro-legal action is writ Petition no. 8209 and 8821/83, which was the first public interest Litigation in the country, involving issues related to environmental and ecological balance. It brought into sharp focus the conflict between development and conservation and emphasised the need for reconciling the two in the large interests of the country. Against an imbalance to ecology and hazard to healthy environment due to working of lime stone quarries in the Mussoorie ranges, the Supreme court ordered the closure of lime stone quarries.

The ball had been set rolling for a dynamic movcment in the country. Coupled with increasing environmental awareness and an imperative need to conserve environment, individuals and groups started looking to the courts for a judicial redressal to social problems. The Supreme court stated that it would respond even to a letter addressed by any individual in matters of public interest. A number of issues were thrown up. It was recognised that non compliance of pollution control laws was a serious offence. Non conformity to standards stipulated by the Pollution Control Board elicited decisions involving immediate closure. Episodal pollution and hazards thereof brought to the fore the importance of industrial siting and absolute liability. Industries were asked to shift from non conforming land use areas. Forest rights were restored, workers rights protected, health compensations awarded. A number of important directions were given by the courts from time to time which have served as indicators of judicial thought and the seriousness with which they view environmental inaction.

 
1. Where an enterprise is engaged in a hazardous or inherently dangerous activity and harm results to any one on account of an accident in the operation of such hazardous or inherently dangerous activity resulting in the escape of toxic gas, the enterprise is strictly and absolutely liable to compensate all those who are affected in the accident and such liability is not subject to any of the exceptions which operate vis a vis the tortious principle of strict liability. In such a case, the measure of compensation must be correlated to the magnitude and capacity of the enterprise because such compensation must have a deterrent effect. The larger and more prosperous the enterprise, the greater must be the amount of compensation. (A.I.R. 1987, S.C. 1086, M.C.Mehta Vs. Union of India and others. Oleum Gas leak case). 
2. Where in a public interest litigation owners of some of the tanneries discharging effluents from their factories in Ganga and not setting up a primary efluent treatment plant in spite of being asked to do so for several years, did not care in spite of notice to them even to enter appearance in the Supreme Court to express their willingness to take appropriate steps to establish the pretreatment plants, it was held that so far as they were concerned an order directing them to stop working their tanneries should be passed. It was further observed that the financial capacity of the tanneries should be considered as irrelevant while requiring them to install PETPs. (A.I.R. 1988, S.C. 1037, M.C.Mehta Vs. Union of India and others. Tannery matter)
    
3. Where a person is not a riparian owner but he is a person interested in protecting the lives of the people who make use of the water flowing in the river Ganga his right to maintain the petition connot be disputed. (A.I.R. 1988, S.C. 1115, W.P. no 3727/85; Municipal Corporation matter) . It has been held that in the case of prosecution of Industries for pollution of River Ganga,
    
4. Stay by High courts should not normally be granted and if granted the matter should be disposed off within a short period, say about two months. 
5. Where as a consequence of a wilful default of the industry in providing details, the name of the industry is wrongly disclosed in the complaint, there are no grounds for quashing complaints against Chairman, Managing Directors and other Directors of the Company. (A.I.R. 1988, S.C. 1128; U.P. Pollution Control Board vs. Modi Distillery)
    
6. Where an industry liable to pay cess under the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act 1977, installs a plant for the treatment of sewage or trade effluent and the plant is running successfully, the assessee is entitled to rebate. A prior consent under section 25(1) of the Water Act 1974 is not necessary (A.I.R. 1991, S.C. 597; Rajasthan State Electricity Board vs. The Cess Apellate committee and others) 
7. Where remedial measures are required, the Supreme Court directed the Central Government to assess the amount which the respondents are liable to pay to improve and restore the environment in the area, damaged by their action. (The damage was in initial estimates found to be Rs 40 crores.) In case of failure of the respondents to pay the amount, the same could be recovered by the Central Government in accordance with Law. The order also stated the all chemical industries whether big or small should be allowed to be established only after taking into consideration all the environmental aspects and their functioning should be monitored closely to ensure that they do not pollute the environment round them. The idea of an environmental audit conducted periodically and certified annually, by specialists in the field, duly recognised, can also be considered.The respondents were also directed to pay a sum of Rs. Fifty thousand by way of costs to the petitioner(1996 /2 SCALE; writ petition /c No. 967 of 1989 with w.p. Nos. 94/90; 824/93 and 76/94. Indian Council of Enviro Legal Action vs. Union of India and others. Bichri case).

    

8. The Supreme Court ordered the closure of 168 hazardous industries in Delhi and also ordered them to shift out side the capital. The court has given protection to the workers by directing that they shall be treated as continuing in their employment, with a shifting allowance. Those who want to quit their jobs or cannot shift could claim retrenchment benefits plus the shifting allowance, (AIR 1996, S.C. 2231; w.p 4677/85; M.C.Mehta vs. Union of India and others) Similarly on 19 Dec 1996, the Supreme Court directed 550 tanneries to a new site by April 1997. They were asked to deposit 25% of the price of the new land. All units which deposit the money were directed to be permitted to operate till they are relocated. Directions were also issued that workmen will not be retrenched but allowed to continue at the same site. They should be considered as actively employed between the closure and relocation. The tanneries opting for closure will have to pay 6 years (Six) wages to the retrenched workers. ( Jan. 1997) Similarily the Supreme Court to save the Taj Mahal from pollution being caused by polluting industries at Agra ordered for the shifting/ relocation of industries and directed some to adopt gas based technologies. 
9. The Supreme court has fined two Sonepat Units, Rs. 50,000 each for discharge of effluents in the Yamuna river. (Business India, Bombay, 27.08.96) Another unit had been fined Rs 10 lakhs by the Supreme Court for violating provisions of section 45 of the water act. 
10. The Supreme court has ordered that compensation be paid to the heirs of the deceased workers, suspected to have succumbed to silicosis;ailing workers and even to those who have succumbed to the desease because of living in the neighbour hood of quartzite crushing units in Jhargram, West Bengal (The Pioneer,New Delhi, 05.09.96) 
11. A special court in Pali, sentenced the owners of a textile printing unit to simple imprisonment of 18 months and a fine of Rs. 2000 for polluting a river ( Statesman , New Delhi, 11.09.96) 
12. The Green bench of the Madras High Court has ordered the closure of stone crushing units within 500 metres from residential areas (The Hindu, Madras 24.09.1996; The Hindu, Delhi, 22.12.96) It has also directed the Pollution Control Board to take immediate steps to close down the foundries situated in the primary residential areas of Coimbatore city. 
13. The Supreme court has ordered the polluting tanneries in Tamil Nadu to compensate the affected persons and to pay the cost of restoring the damaged ecology.(W.P./ c no. 914; Vellore Citizens Forum vs. Union of India; Business Line, New Delhi) 
14. The Gujrat High Court has ordered the closure of dyeing and printing units, holding them responsible for polluting the drinking water. The dyeing units were also required to pay 1% of their 3 years turn over as penalty to the people affected by the polluted water (The Business and Political Observer, New Delhi, 08.08.97) 
15. The Supreme Court has delegated the Central Ground Water Board as an authority in order to regulate and control ground water development and penalise violaters. The Board can resort to penal provisions contained in the E.P.Act.

In an economy striving for sustainable development, fear does play an important role in achieving the goals of environmental policy, but, it should not be regarded as the only means to the end. Environmental Awareness has to be brought about in a way that the imperativeness of conservation and the means to do so become imbibed in our life styles, compliance becomes voluntary and environment becomes a cutural movement.

The synthesis of chlorophyll triggered a process in which the Carbon Dioxide present in the atmosphere (probably about 10000 times more than of now) entered a reaction with water in the presence of sunlight. This was the beginning of a transition from the chemoautotrophic, fermentative and anaerobic mode of metabolism to the autotrophic, photosynthetic and aerobic form of metabolism.

The process also heralded the way for the evolution of plants – for the fixation of carbon and nitrogen- the synthesis of biomass and all primary food production. Oxygen evolved as a by-product of the reaction but it took another about 0.8 billion years for earth to get free Oxygen. The all-important ozone layer was formed. As plant activity achieved dominance plant material became embedded in the lower crusts of the earth to finally form fossils. Coal is one such fossil, which has been thus formed.

Man in his quest for excellence, saw this coal and recognized its potential as a slave. He had discovered fire already. This was the beginning of the Industrial revolution- of smoking chimneys serving as signatures of prosperity and development. Little did man know that the process could recoil as a danger to mans very existence on earth. That man would eventually cut the very branch on which he is sitting. Electrical energy is a very important part of all development activity. 1995 estimates for the per capita consumption of electrical energy in India were 360 units which compares very badly with 6000 to 10000 units from the industrially developed countries. Estimates for the demand for power during1992-1997 reveals a demand of 1783989 million kWh, a supply of 1626544 kWh and a deficit of 8.8% on the demand. Indias coal reserves are estimated to be just about 1% of the worlds reserves while its population is 16% of the global population. India has a coal reserve of 200 billion tons and a current annual production of 295.93(1997-1998) million tons. Seventy percent of the total coal production and virtually the entire lignite production goes into power generation. In the early years of this century India will be producing 400 million tons of coal and lignite of which about 330 million tons would be needed for power generation.

Interestingly the production of coking and non-coking coals for 1962-1963 was just 55.23 million tons. About 75% of electrical energy is produced by the thermal power plants in India. Emissions from the combustion of coal are one of the basic environmental problems associated with the thermal power plants. The World Health Organisation has prescribed the following emission factors for thermal power plants: Particulates- 3.5(A) Kg. per ton of Lignite burnt; 8(A) Kg. Per ton of Bituminous coal burnt; 8.5 (A) Kg per ton of Anthracite burnt. Here A is the ash content of combustible coal by weight. Sulfur Dioxide- 15 (S) Kg. Per ton Lignite burnt; 19 (S) Kg. Of coal and Anthracite burnt. Here S is the percentage combustible sulfur by weight. Nitrogen Oxides- 7 Kg. Per ton of lignite burnt, 9 Kg. Per ton of Anthracite and 9Kg. Per ton of Bituminous coal. Hydrocarbons- 0.5 Kg per ton of lignite, 0.015 Kg. Per ton of Anthracite burnt and 0.15 Kg. Per ton of bituminous coal burnt. Carbon monoxide- The emission of carbon monoxide from all sources is prescribed as 0.15 Kg. Per ton.

 Indian coal has a high Ash content sometimes exceeding 40%and a Sulfur content ranging from 0.2 to 8 % with an average of 2%. With low conversion efficiency, thermal power plants release almost about 1.5 to 2 MW of thermal energy per MW of power produced in the environment. About 15 % of this is released along with the flue gases and the rest is discharged along with cooling water. It is estimated that a 500MW coal fired power plant having no pollution control equipment would emit nearly 100 tons of Sulfur Dioxide, 20 tons of Nitrogen Oxides and 6 tons of Ash daily. Existing power plants produce about 50 million tons of fly ash per annum needing 40000 acres of precious land for disposal of fly ash during their span of 30 years. Combustion products from thermal power plants have great environmental significance. Acidic gases have a tendency to form acid rain. While the problem of acid rain is not yet severe in India yet the increasing use of coal is likely to increase the possibility. Soot from chimneys has a low particle size and may tend to deposit in the tissues of lungs where it embeds itself, may stay for two to six weeks and in the process because of adsorbent capacities, adsorb acidic gases, heavy metals and other particulate air pollutants which are inhaled.

Heavy metals are an important constituent of fossils and combustion of coal releases in the atmosphere a number of heavy metals. These either come out as slag from boilers or are impregnated on the soot particles and with the slightest of acidic conditions may resolubilise in the environment causing metal pollution of air and water. This class of pollutants, because of bioaccumulative properties needs special mention. Bioaccumulation leads to magnification and long term exposure to very small concentrations may cause severe problems. Episodal pollution of this kind is best exemplified by the Minamata Bay incident where Methyl Mercury created problems of fish and human mortality.

In a 200 MW power plant in India burning about 9000 tons of coal per day leaching of a mere 15% of heavy metals from the surface of Ash will cause a nearby river to receive daily 208 Kg of Iron, 56 Kg of Zinc, 45 Kg of Copper, 5 Kg.of Cadmium, 56 Kg of Nickel, 4.6 Kg. of Uranium, 16.5 Kg of Thorium, 60.6 Kg of Chromium and 11.2 Kg of Cobalt daily. The transformation, which these metals undergo in the polluted anaerobic waters, the effects of bioaccumulation on the flora and fauna and the impact of biomagnification need special attention. Chlorine and Fluorine are also constituents of coal and it is expected that photochemical reactions would trigger out a process of synthesis of Chlorofluorocarbons which may have far reaching consequences.

We all know by now that Chlorofluorocarbons are causative in the catalytic breakdown of Ozone and the consequent depletion of the ozone layer. The life of these molecules (Chlorine) is almost 100 years and it is for this extent of time that it would go on damaging the ozone layer. We must be cautious. Most of the gases released from fossil fuel burning contribute to the green house effect. Global warming is a consequence. It is also significant that every three tones of carbon burnt consume 8 tons of oxygen and that we are drawing excessively on the oxygen resource of earth. Fly Ash disposal is a major concern for the thermal power plants. Generally, for every MW of installed capacity approximately one acre of land is required for the ash generated, the material accumulating to a height of 8 – 10 metres.

Fly ash is a harmful environmental pollutant. Being light it gets air-borne very fast. Long inhalation causes silicosis, fibrosis of lungs, bronchitis and pneumonites etc. It corrodes structural surfaces and deposition effects horticulture. Slurry disposal lagoons/ settling tanks become sources of mosquitoes and bacteria. It holds the potential to contaminate the underground resources with traces of toxic metals present in it. The ash handling system may account for 5% of the total cost of a power project.

Pagini: 1 2

And then this great news came – India crosses one billion – congratulations fellow countrymen. In this hour of heed, I thought I should also share my views with you. I wish somedody could prove them wrong. I sincerely pray for my country – my India.

The worlds population is estimated to be 7 billion by the year 2000 and 9.4 billion by the year 2020. An alarming situation – alarming because most of it could be in developing countries like India, still striving hard to cope up with basic necessities. People are expected to migrate to cities, cities where more than 60% people already live as habitat refugees. In absolute terms by the year 2025 , about 2904 million people are expected to be added to the worlds urban population of which 2609 million will be in the cities of the south. Cities which are already crowded. Chicago supports 2500 people per square kilometers, London 4000, Mexico City 34000, Manila 43,000 and Calcutta a stunning 88000 people per square kilometers. U.N. predictions also paint a grim picture. By 2010, 30 cities in Asia will have a population greater than 5 million (compared with only two U.S. and six European cities). Shanghai and Bombay will have 20 million and Beijing, Dacca, Jakarta, Manila, Tianjin, Calcutta and Delhi will have more than 15 million. This is suicide by all cognizable apprehensions.

The medium population projection of the expert committee on population projection, on which the overall planning for India is normally based had estimated that the 1981 population of 685 million would go up to 986 million in 2001. 1999, and we have already crossed these estimates. The growing population is expected to put tremendous pressures on our resources which – it is time that we realise – are finite. We have to therefore seriously think of our growing numbers if we want to climb to the upper reaches of the heirarchy of needs, to the realms of improved infrastructure, social and emotional security, fulfilled environmental objectives, health etc. As population grows additional resources are applied to provide for hasic necessities. Improvements in living conditions and in environmental quality then become a secondary priority. A hungry man will think of only bread and to expect him to think of the country is fallacy. In a system then, which is poor and hungry, thoughtfulness for the country is any bodys guess.

The growth in human numbers has been stupendous and blasphemous. While it had taken half a million years for modern man to reach a population of one billion, the next billion was added in 80 years (1850-1930) , the third billion was added in 30 years (1931-1960), the fourth billion in 15 years (1961-1975) and if prophecies come true we would have added another 3 billions in 25 years (1975-2000). Over whelming by all means – what does it have in store for us?

Man evolved as a part of nature, living in harmony with nature until he learnt to tame, to tame vegetaion, to tame fire and to tame animals. This gave him a power not felt by his ancestors of a million years. In further trying to tame the biogeochemical cycles he then went on a mad spree and murderous assault. The effects are evident. Poverty, desease, squalor, slums, air pollution, water pollution are things which more than a third of humanity is sharing its bed with. Resources are dwindling. A high demand for goods and services both basic and those percieved as essential in the present social web coupled with limited resources has resulted in deteriorating social and cultural values. Thefts, murders, kidnappings, corruption and suicides are the order of the day. Is this the social structure we had thought of? Humanity is in pain, insecure socially, culturally and environmentally. Families have broken down and so have values. The pressures of living are telling. What is then the solution?

Rural urban migration is a reality and a necessity. More than 300 rural families migrate to greater Bombay every day in search of employment and better living conditions. We have therefore to produce quality villages and market them, not as the packing but as the product. A marketing that is strengthened through sincere intentions, good example setting and high standards by people whom the nation looks to in its endeavour of total committment to social welfare. And if we are successful in producing our villages as complete socio economic entities where each man has an opportunity to work and prosper we will restrict the ballooning of our cities. New York, Los Angeles, Moscow, London have hardly grown by 3% (Over the 1970 population figures) in 30 years while Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi and some other developing cities have grown by over 40%.

The population that we produce is poor. In the past 15 years we may have added 270 million people to India’s population, out of these about 130 million people within the same period have been additionally forced to live below the poverty line, a startling 48% of the total rise in population. More than four hundred million people in India live below the poverty line. An alarming 40% of the total population.

Somedoby said that having a policy in which people with more than two children should not be allowed to hold public office would help. Yes, it may have its limitatios. Yet this somebody had alteast got an urge to be concerned and think – how many of us have? We can always think of a policy where beyond two children subsidies in education can be regulated. There are states which have also evolved systems of fiscal incentives in the shapes of bonds. This will certainly help. The problem is serious and therefore solutions whthin the constitutional framework would have to be found immediately through policies of reward and punishments. Punishments – I advocate, because the stakes are high, because I want India to emerge as a super power, because I am a common citizen of India who is weeping at anarchy and at anarchy becoming the rule.

India has great potentials – we are proud of it – but let us just not harp on our potentials let us rise to relise them. Let us all the do our duty, howsoever small, with the utmost sincerety, let us all realise again that resources are finite and will divide as we increase in numbers. Let us relise that the rate of increase has been and is catastrophically high and let us also realise that dominance leads to competition and competition leads to elimination and finally extinction.

In the end, I wish my analysis is faulty and my suggestions impractical and childish. I again wish somebody should come and prove me wrong.

From Walnut shells
Walnut shells serve as an alternative source of  Activated Carbon. Adsorption capacity increased with increase in activation temperature but beyond 400 degrees celsius resulted in thermal decomposition. Activation longer than one hour at 375 degrees celcius resulted in a destruction of the micropore size.Activation with ZnCl2 was better than that with CaCl2 and increased with increasing concentrations upto a certain limit beyond which increasing concentrations inhibited activation.Applicability of the activated carbon from walnut shells, as adsorbent  for synthetic copper wastewater, was better for Copper Ions as compared to  carbon from coconut shell.

From Rosa canina seeds
“An activated carbon has been developed from Rosa canina sp. seeds, characterized and used for the removal of methylene blue (basic dye) from aqueous solutions.”

From Corn Cobs
A new absorbent material  made from the remains of corn cob is being used to store natural gas. A nanaporous carbon material is produced from the waste corn which is referred to as the “sponge for natural gas”,where the methane uptake is 120v/v or more. Other materials used to make this adsorbent material , olive pits and coconut shell, are more expensive to produce.Flat low pressure high capacity natural gas tanks for vehicles holding no greater than 500psi of methane have been developed.This  reduced the effects in the event of an explosion because of lower pressure of the storage tank and allowed for more trunk space in cars.

Corn cob dried and crushed is mixed with phosphoric acid (H3PO4),where it serves as an activating agent.Excess phosphoric acid is removed and the mixture is carbonized at 450-650oC in a reactor, after which it is evaporated at 160oC for 3 hours.It is washed with hot water to bring the pH to a neutral point.The washed activated carbon is dried at 110oC and grinded and sieved to a particle size of 40 mesh.Using a hydraulic press and a die the powder and a small quantity of binding agent is pressed into monoliths or briquettes to obtain the highest density .These briquettes are used for storage of natural gas at a targetted capacity of 150v/v .The applications include use in gas based vehicles,transportation of natural gas and adsorption of gas from land fills.

From Oil Palm wastes,cork powder and other agricultural wastes
Adsorption of Sulfur Dioxide on Activated Carbon from Oil-Palm Waste and use of cork powder as source of activated carbon has also been studied.Agricultural wastes could be considered as suitable raw materials for the production of activated carbon.activated carbon was produced by chemical activation with phosphoric acid of agricultural wastes such as bagasse, hard shells of apricot stones, almond, walnut and hazelnut shells,activated carbon from the hard shells of apricot stones have the best adsorption properties and the highest surface  area. This activated carbon could be used in the separation of metal ions from wastewaters.

From pyrolysis of sewage sludges
Activated carbons can also be produced by the chemical activation and pyrolisis of sewage. The adsorbents produced from sewage sludges were able to adsorb dyes from coloured waste waters like saffranine and methylene blue.Methylene blue absorption was faster than that for Saffranine.

From Waste newsprint
Waste paper activated carbon has been  prepared from waste newsprint paper and its adsorption capacities were almost the same as ordinary activated carbon on the market.

From Waste Tyres
Technology is available to burn tires in order to seperate and recover carbides.Some parts of the carbides are active and can be used as active carbon. Water (steam) is added to the system for activation.Steel and generated steam can be recovered seperately.

Methods for treating waste tires include retreading,stockpiling, landfilling, recycling, pulverization, fueling, incineration,and pyrolysis. The simplest means of treating waste tires are landfilling and stockpiling. However,wastetires are not easily biodegradable in landfills and, when stockpiled, the accumulation of water in waste tires provides an ideal breeding ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes and rodents. Moreover, uncontrolled fires have broken out in piles of waste tires, and the emission of gaseous air pollutants during open burning has threatened human health and the safety of nearby communities.Waste tires contain more than 90% organic materialsand have a heat value of 32.6 mJ/kg (14,000 Btu/lb),compared with that for coal of 18.6–27.9 mJ/kg (8000–12,000 Btu/lb). Several attempts have been made to convert waste tires to auxiliary fuel. Among them, pyrolysis is a favorable choice for treating waste tires from environmentaland economic perspectives. Pyrolysis is a typical thermal treatment process in the absence of oxygen (O2),which decomposes waste tires into carbon black, combustible gas, and pyrolysis oil.The combustible gas can be recovered as an auxiliary fuel, while the pyrolysis oil, with a composition similar to that of diesel, can be further distilled as supplemental fuel. Furthermore, waste tires or carbon black could be activated into powdered or granular activated carbon for air pollution control and wastewater treatment.

Rubber separated from waste tires was first carbonized at 500 °C in N2 atmosphere. Next, the obtained chars were activated with steam at 850 °C. As a result, fairly mesoporous activated carbons  were obtained. To further improve the porous properties of the activated carbons, the char was treated with I M HCl at room temperature for 1 day prior to steam activation. This treatment increased mesopore volumes , Furthermore, adsorption characteristics of phenol and a dye, Black 5, on the activated carbon prepared via acid treatment were compared with those of a commercial activated carbon in the liquid phase. Although the prepared carbon had a larger micropore volume than the commercial carbon, it showed a slightly lower phenol adsorption capacity. On the other hand, the prepared carbon showed an obviously larger dye adsorption capacity than the commercial carbon, because of its larger mesopore volume.

From Waste Wood
Activated carbons have been produced from waste wood and have the added advantage of  better utilization of resources and reduction of carbon dioxide generation from waste incineration.Specific surface area and adsorption performance of activated carbons from waste wood were found to be nearly equal to those of commercial activated carbons which could be used for humidity-control in houses and leachate treatment in landfill. Waste wood activated carbon also demonstrated equivalent or superior performance to commercial activated carbons.

From Waste Tea
Activated carbons were prepared by phosphoric acid activation with and without microwave treatment and carbonisation of  waste tea under nitrogen atmosphere at various temperatures and different phosphoric acid/precursor impregnation ratios.

From spent activated carbon from water filters
Spent activated carbon from water purifier (Aqua Guard, India) for the removal of atrazine (2 chloro-4 ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1, 3, 5 triazine) from wastewaters has also been tried successfully.

From Beer Lees
Activated carbon was successfully produced from beer lees which are the main waste material from a beer-production process, when KOH and CO2 were used as oxidizing agents in activation process.

From combustion ash from low Nox boilers
Coal fired plants now use low NOX boilers to reduce emissions. These burners reduce the NOX but increase the unburnt carbon left after combustion and power plants are left with fly ash and unburnt carbon.This impacts the recycle and reuse of fly ash.One use of combustion waste is as activated carbon.While both anthracite and unburned carbon can produce acceptable activated carbon, unburned carbon is probably less expensive and better for the environment. Unburned carbon, separated from fly ash, does not need cleaning or crushing, nor does it need heating to remove volatile components. Also, while anthracite sells for about $50 a ton, the waste from power plants can be separated for $10 to $15 per ton, and the fly ash could be sold to cement manufacturers.

From Chicken Waste
Preparation of low cost activated carbon from chicken waste is a promising way to produce a useful adsorbent for Hg removal. The activated carbon from chicken waste has the same mercury  capacity as commercial activated carbon.

From Broiler Excreta
Ammonia (NH3) pollution from broiler excreta is a primary concern for broiler industry viability.Activated carbon made from broiler litter is effective for NH3 adsorption originating from litterand provides  an opportunity to not only reuse the manure, but also treat the emissions from or within broiler houses.
The BAC is a much cheaper alternative than commercially produced activated carbons and can be applied directly tohe litter if health of birds are the concern or via a filtration system if air pollution concerns demand compliance to standards.

From Urban Waste
The organic fraction of urban waste is converted to active carbon via an improved pyrolytic process. The active carbon produced has a low ash content, high pore volume and hardnessand the active carbon of the present invention possesses superior characteristics. The urban waste referred to herein includes various types of waste produced in the urban environment. For the purpose of this invention urban waste is defined as waste which includes domestic waste and commercial waste but does not include industrial waste. In this context, domestic waste includes waste produced in an average normal household which comprises food waste, paper products and packaging, plastic products, wood, glass and metal. Commercial waste is the waste produced by the commercial sector. Much of the commercial waste is generated by food establishments, markets, grocery stores and the like.

In the initial stage the waste is sorted for the removal of foreign materials. The waste is then shredded to particle size of about 2cm x 2cm x 2cm, and then dried at a temperature of about 110°C. The dried particulate waste is then transferred to the pyrolysis vessel wherein the pyrolysis is a two stage process conducted at a temperature, preferably, in the range of 1400C to 500°C, in which primary pyrolysis takes place at about 160°C and in the second stage the temperature reaches 3900C. The pyrolysis stage takes about 2 hours. Optionally, matter made of polymeric materials, typically, plastics and rubbers, are removed prior to and/or subsequent to any one of the pyrolysis stages. The charcoal produced in the pyrolysis is crushed to a mean particle size up to about 0.01mm. This charcoal produced in the pyrolysis stage has an ash content of 9-20%. This charcoal is granulated in an extruder with a charcoal: water: oil ratio of about 1: 0.7: 0.15. The subsequent carbonization is carried out at a temperature, preferably, in the range of 110oC to 600°C. The granulated carbon is then carbonized at about 180°C under anaerobic conditions. The subsequent activation is carried out at about 790OC in the presence of steam and combustion gases. The combustion gases used in this stage are mixed with gases from the drying process.

The final purifying of the activated carbon is done by rinsing with an aqueous acidic solution, preferably, 5%-20% HCl solution, until the ash content is 2%-5% followed by washing in water until the water extracts have a pH of 3.5-5. The rinsed activated carbon is finally dried at about 100oC to a final water content in the range of 4%-8%.

The activated carbon obtained by the process of the present invention has an ash content of 2%-5%, a mean pore volume in the range of 0.95-1.2 ml/g  and a hardness in the range 85-95.

From Chlorella Vulgaris and Rice Husk
Chlorella vulgaris and rice husk were selected from microorganisms and agricultural waste, respectively, to create new gold-eluteable adsorbents for adsorption of gold-thiourea complex, and compared with activated carbon.  Although heated-immobilised C. vulgaris had the highest eluteability, it adsorbed less gold. Therefore, heated rice husk could be used as an alternative adsorbent for gold-thiourea pre-concentration.

Activated carbon (AC) of high quality has been produced from rice husk. The production involves two (2) main steps: (1) carbonization of raw material at temperature below 800oC in the absence of air using fixed bed reactor (furnace); (2) activation of resulting char with an alkali. The high-quality activated carbons produced have surface areas of 2,896-3,287 m2/g, methylene blue values of 999-1,050 mg/g and benzene gas adsorption of 167-212%.
References

1.Jin-Wha Kima, Myoung-Hoi Sohna, Dong-Su Kim, Seung-Man Sohnb and Young-Shik Kwonc ,Production of granular activated carbon from waste walnut shell and its adsorption characteristics for Cu2+ ion, Journal of Hazardous Materials,Volume 85, Issue 3, 17 August 2001, Pages 301-315

2.Abe Ikuo,Maruyama Jun,   Fukuhara Tomoko,Iwasaki Satoshi ,Production of Activated Carbon from Waste Wood by Air-Based Activation Method. Science and Industry VOL.74;NO.9;PAGE.442-447,2000

3.F. Rozadaa, L. F. Calvoa, A. I. Garcíaa, J. Martín-Villacortab and M. Otero,Dye adsorption by sewage sludge-based activated carbons in batch and fixed-bed systems  , Bioresource Technology ,Volume 87, Issue 3, May 2003, Pages 221-230

4.A. Gürsesa,  Ç. Dogarb, S. Karacac, M. Açikyildiza and R. Bayraka ,Production of granular activated carbon from waste Rosa canina sp. seeds and its adsorption characteristics for dye ,Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 131, Issues 1-3, 17 April 2006, Pages 254-259.

5.The Properties of Activated Carbon Made from Waste Newsprint Paper ,Journal of Porous Materials, Volume 6, Number 3 , May, 1999 ,Pages 191-196

6.Emine Yagmura, Meryem Ozmaka and Zeki Aktas,A novel method for production of activated carbon from waste tea by chemical activation with microwave energy, Fuel, Volume 87, Issues 15-16, November 2008, Pages 3278-3285

7.Emine Yagmura, Meryem Ozmaka and Zeki Aktas,A novel method for production of activated carbon from waste tea by chemical activation with microwave energy ,Fuel,Volume 87, Issues 15-16, November 2008, Pages 3278-3285

8.Pranab Kumar Ghosh and Ligy Philip, Performance Evaluation of Waste Activated Carbon on Atrazine Removal from Contaminated Water,Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, Volume 40, Issue 3 May 2005 , pages 425 – 441

9.Hyoung-Ho LEE, Yuki HIRANO, Norihiro MURAYAMA, Shigeno MATSUMOTO and Junji SHIBATA, Adsorption Properties of Activated Carbon Prepared from Waste Beer Lees by KOH Activation and CO2 Activation, Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansai University and Asada Iron Works Co. Ltd.  February 1, 2007

10.Aik Chong Lua,  and Jia Guo, Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 10, October 2001, pp. 895-901,

11.Beatriz Cardoso, Ana S. Mestre, Ana P. Carvalho,* and Joa~o Pires,Activated Carbon Derived from Cork Powder Waste by KOH Activation: Preparation, Characterization, and VOCs Adsorption,Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 47 (16), 5841–5846, 2008.

12.Masahiro Shimada1, Takahiko Iida1, Kensuke Kawarada1, Yoshifumi Chiba, Toshihiro Mamoto and Takayuki Okayama
Porous structure of activated carbon prepared from waste newspaper ,Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
Volume 2, Number 2 ,October, 2000,Pages 100-108

13.Chung-Shin Yuan, Hsun-Yu Lin, Chun-Hsin Wu, and Ming-Han Liu,Preparation of Sulfurized Powdered Activated Carbon from Waste Tires Using an Innovative Compositive Impregnation Process,Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, Volume 54, July 2004, 862-870

14.Yaji Huang, Baosheng Jin, Zhaoping Zhong, Wenqi Zhong, Rui Xiao ,Characteristic and mercury adsorption of activated carbon produced by CO2 of chicken waste.J Environ Sci (China). 2008 ;20 (3):291-6

15.Fitzmorris, K.B., Miles, D.M., Lima, I.M. 2007. Efffacy of activated carbon from broiler litter in the removal of litter generated ammonia. Proceedings International Symposium on Air Quality and Waste Management for Agriculture Research,September 16, 2007,701P0907 CD-ROM.

16.Dr. R.B. Lartey, & Dr. Francis Acquah, K.S. Nketia,  CSIR Developing National Capability For Manufacture Of
Activated  Carbon From Agricultural Wastes ,The Ghana Engineer, May 1999.

Carbon Activation
Activated carbon is made from any substance with a high carbon content, and activation refers to the development of the property of adsorption. Activated carbon is important in purification processes, in which molecules of various contaminants are concentrated on and adhere to the solid surface of the carbon. Activated carbon is generally nonpolar, and because of this it adsorbs other nonpolar, mainly organic, substances. Extensive porosity (pore volume) and large available internal surface area of the pores are responsible for adsorption.

Any inexpensive material with a high carbon content and a low inorganic content can be used as potential
raw material in producing activated carbons. The most often used raw materials for manufacturing activated carbons include wood, peat, bituminous coal, lignite, coconut shell, nutshells, lignin, and others.
Activated carbons can be manufactured by either a physical or a chemical activation process. The physical activation process generally is used to manufacture activated carbon in a two-step activation process—the carbonization of raw materials in the absence of O2 followed by the activation of carbonized products. Steam and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the activating reagents most commonly used in physical activation, significantly influencing the porosity of the activated carbons.  The chemical activation process is used to manufacture activated carbons usually in a single step, using zinc chloride, phosphoric acid, and potassium hydroxide as the activating reagents.The carbonaceous materials are converted into activated carbons depending upon the nature of the raw materials, the nature of the activating reagent, and the conditions of the activation process.Furthermore, activated carbon can be impregnated with sulfur (S), chloride, or iodine to increase its adsorptive capacity, making the impregnated activated carbon much more effective than un-impregnated activated carbon for removing gaseous mercury (Hg) from flue gases at low temperatures.

Utility of Activated Carbon
Waste Treatment
Activated carbon may be used to treat a number of contaminants in liquid wastes including Non-biodegradable organic compounds (COD), Adsorbable Organic Halogens (AOX), Toxicity ,Colour compounds and dyestuffs ,Inhibitory compounds for biological treatment systems ,Aromatic compound including phenol and bis-phenol A (BPA),Chlorinated/halogenated organic compounds ,Pesticides and a host of toxic substances.

Air Pollution Control
In the context of air pollution control, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from air and other gases can be removed to below the detection limit.Noxious compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans are readily trapped through adsorption and help to prevent odours. Incinerators dealing with Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), hazardous industrial waste, medical waste, sewerage sludge and crematoria results in the formation of a flue gas containing a range of pollutants. Dioxins and heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium are not normally removed to low enough concentrations by conventional treatment.
A range of industrial inorganic compounds and materials can be removed from gas streams, before venting to the atmosphere, using specialised impregnated or catalytic (Centaur) carbons.

In the Food and Beverage Industry
Activated carbons can be used in the Food and Beverage industry to decolourise,dechlorinate,deozonate,decaffeinate,debitter,deodorise a number of food products.

In the Pharmaceutical Industry
In the Pharmaceutical industry activated carbons are used to provide superior removal of colour compounds, odour compounds, proteins and other contaminants that could be present in the raw materials or that form during production.

As a Catalyst
With its large surface area, purity and relative hardness, activated carbon is an ideal carrier for catalytic metals or  a catalyst by itself.Activated carbons  have been successfully used as a catalyst in the manufacture of dry cell batteries, production of biodegradable herbicides like cyanuric chloride glyphosate, mercaptan removal in petroleum distillates and in the production and destruction of phosgene.

In the production of natural gas
Activated carbons have also been used for removal of mercury from natural gas for the production of L.N.G. , the removal of mercury from liquid hydrocarbons and  the removal of mercaptans/thiols , hydrogen sulphide and amine solutions  from natural gas and natural gas scrubbing.

In the brewing industry
Industrial uses of activated carbon also include its use for the purification of  hydrocarbon contaminated Carbon Dioxide generated from the conversion of sugars to alcohol and its reuse for carbonation in the brewing Industry  thereby eliminating the need from purchasing Carbon Dioxide from outside sources.

For the storage of gases
It can also be used to remove trace lubrication oils from waste streams and in fruit storage for gas storage(under pressurised condition the extensively developed carbon porosity provides for greatly enhanced volume storage of either a pure gas, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen, or a gas mixture such as air) and delivery and also in applications that provide alternatives to greenhouse gas emissions.

In the Caustic soda Industry
Caustic Soda is used extensively in, and is also a by-product from, the chloralkali industry. Mercury cells are used for production of chlorine, hydrogen, and sodium (in a few plants potassium) hydroxides by electrolysis of a brine solution, and this can cause contamination.  Steam activated and impregnated carbons  are proven for this application.

For the purification of Electroplating Chemicals
Electroplating chemicals that become contaminated with organics and metal finishing residues can be purified by the use of steam activated carbon and the chemicals can be recycled for reuse.Chromium can be recovered from electroplating solutions.

In Gold recovery applications
Coconut shell based granular activated carbons are used in gold recovery applications employing the Carbon in Leach (CIL) or Carbon in Pulp (CIP) processes.

In Process Water treatment
In process water treatment, activated carbons are used to remove tastes and odors ,disinfection byproducts like chloramines, free and combined chlorine,trihalomethanes and halocarbons, for pH and alkalinity control,condensate recovery and treatment systems in steam generating operations,personal and collective protective masks against toxic gases includind Industrial and military respirators.

Other Applications
Other applications include within air filtration systems in archives and museums,ozone management in ponds and aquaria,treatment of swimming pool water for removal of organic matter, chloroform ,ozone,chloramine and other bonded chlorine and in cigarette filters,filters for treating cabin air in automobiles.

Recycling of spent activated carbon
Once granular carbon is saturated or the treatment objective is reached, it can be recycled, by thermal reactivation, for reuse. Reactivation involves treating the spent carbon in a high temperature reactivation furnace to over 800°C. During this treatment process, the undesirable organics on the carbon are thermally destroyed. Recycling by thermal reactivation is a highly skilled process, to ensure that spent carbon is returned to a reusable quality.  Recycling activated carbon by thermal reactivation meets the environmental need to minimise waste, reducing CO2 emissions and limiting the use of the world’s resources.

A.REUSE OF ACRYLIC SCRAP FROM SHEET MANUFACTURE FOR SHEET MANUFACTURE

Acrylic, also known as  poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA), is a clear, colorless transparent plastic with a higher softening point, better impact strength, and better weatherablility than polystyrene (PS). Acrylic is widely used in many application fields, such as transparency roof, automobile parts,  etc. The principal commercial processes for the production acrylic sheets are extrusion and casting . The manufacturing of transparent acrylic sheet is normally produced by cell casting process, which utilizes two flat glass plates separated by an elastomeric gasket. The flexible gasket permits filling of the cell with monomer or syrup,prevents leakage, and controls thickness of the acrylic sheet. In general, gasket is used only once and must be removed from finished product by cutting in order to make a require sheet size. Most of acrylic scrap, residual acrylic material stick around unusable gasket, generated during cutting step and comprises of approximately 10% of total final production, which becomes as an industrial waste plastic.

In order to conserve and reduce the quantity of acrylic waste from the production process, the concept of cleaner technology could be  applied to demonstrate the alternative way to reduce the processing cost of acrylic cast sheet and decrease an industrial waste by using acrylic scrap recycle within the acrylic cast sheet process.

Approximately  10% of acrylic scrap is generated during cutting step. Recycling of acrylic waste scrap within the production process is a technical option that can  reduce the generation of acrylic waste scrap.

The acrylic monomer solution viscosity increases with increasing the concentration of acrylic waste scrap. According to the industrial preparation of acrylic cast sheet, the appropriate viscosity of acrylic syrup before pouring into a casting cell is in the range of 500-3000 cp, therefore the appropriate concentration of acrylic monomer solution mixed with acrylic waste scrap should almost reach that of industrial standard viscosity value. The appropriate concentrations of acrylic waste scrap mixed within the acrylic monomer solution are in the range of 4% and 5%, which give the viscosity values in the range of 500-1611 cp.

In experimental studies the acrylic waste scrap did not affect the impact strength and hardness properties of the acrylic cast sheet product although the tensile strength property of the acrylic cast sheet product increased with increasing the amount of acrylic waste.

The acrylic waste scrap did not affect  the transparency property of the acrylic cast sheet.

Acrylic waste scrap affects the UV resistance property but did not affect the heat resistance property. However, the UV resistance property of the acrylic cast sheet product mixed with the acrylic waste scrap can be improved by the addition of UV stabilizer additive, which is usually added to the final product of acrylic cast sheet before sale to customer.

Environmental Impact Evaluation of the Acrylic Scrap Recycle

According to data available for Pan Asia Industrial Co., Ltd, Thailand,  16,000 kg of acrylic monomer isfed into a batch reactor and approximate 1,600 kg of acrylic waste scrap is generated during the productionprocess per day.  5% (800kg/day) of acrylic waste scrap was the maximum concentration that can be recycled as a part of raw material for produces acrylic cast sheet. By using the material balance analysis  and the material grouping for simplified product life cycle assessment, the environmental impact evaluation of the 5% of acrylic scrap recycle was calculated.   5% of acrylic waste scrap recyclable can reduce the costs of raw material (acrylic monomer), waste disposal, processing, and transportation, which are approximate 6-7% saving of the total cost. It can be concluded that the recycling of acrylic waste scrap within the acrylic production process generates a double outcomes to industry both in environmental and economical aspects. In environmental aspect, company can minimize the waste and pollutions.  Economical aspect, company can optimize resource use while increasing resource productivity. This ensures that more product/or services areobtained from less energy and raw material input.

B.ACRYLIC POWDER FROM SCRAP RECYCLE AS FILLER IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BATHROOM FIXTURES.

Composite plastic scrap (vacuum formed acrylic plastic with glass fibre reinforcement) has low density and thus has to be precrushed to save transportation and landfilling costs. Reprocessing of problematic plastic scrap (composite plastics) by using mechanical methods like milling by collision in disintegrators has been tried successfully.For the milling of composite plastic scrap, different disintegrator mills wereused [9]. for the size reduction of the acrylic plastic constituent and on the separation of the glass fibre constituent. Plastic powder with a particle size of about 1–2 mm can beproduced by two step milling and 95 mass % of the glass fibre content can be separated by final selective milling.

The total amount of separated GFP was 45 mass %.As a result, we can use 55 mass % of acrylic plastic from the composite plastic scrap. GFP can be reused in the production of polymeric concrete products as reinforcement.

Industrial PMMA scrap can be divided into two groups: pure acrylic plastic scrap forms about 20% and reinforced acrylic plastic scrap about 80% of the total amount. PMMA scrap without technological additives cannot be recycled and reextruded to produce new PMMA sheet material because of the amorphous structure of this thermoplastic material. Heating up an acrylic plastic material overglass transition temperature (100 °C) converts the plastic into a rubber-like state, which makes this material ideal for vacuum forming. Continued heating causes thermal degradation of the material instead of melting.

Acrylic powder has found application as  as a new fillermaterial in  the Solid Surface casting technology for producing  bathroom washbasins. Commonly, washbasins are made from a composite material consisting of a binder agen(unsaturated polyester resin), a filler material (dolomite powder),and a catalyst agent added to the resin to accelerate hardening. The mixing ratios of the binder agent and the filler material are 25/75 mass %. The traditional filler material, used in the casting technology, is a high-white dolomite filler, composed of CaMg(CO3)2 with a density of 2850 kg/m3 and particle sizes of coarse fractions 0.2–0.6 mm and 0.1–0.3 mm, and of the fine fraction less than 0.1 mm. Acrylic powder was used to substitute for the high white dolomite filler. The best flow characteristics of the mixture were obtained with 50 mass % of acrylic filler and 50 mass % of matrix, but the best surface quality and hardness after polishing was achieved with a mixture of 66 mass % of the acrylic filler and 34 mass % of the resin matrix.

Flow characteristics of the mixture 66/34 could be improved by using a lower viscosity matrix.Based on the results of tensile and hardness tests, two composite materials, 34/66 and 40/60 were selected for the abrasive resistance test. This test showed that the composite 40/60 had the best relative wear resistance properties ( 0.94), v e = which were closest to the reference material PMMA. Reprocessed plastics washbasins, produced from the new composite material, will increase the wear resistance of the working surface. At the same time, as compared to the dolomite filler, double reduction in weight can be achieved.

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